The institution of caliphate was conceived in 632 CE after the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad (570-632 CE). In the eyes of the Sunni Muslims, the first four sovereigns were part of the Rashidun Caliphate, but the Shia Muslims discredit the first three as usurpers to the rightful throne of the 'Ahl al-Bayt' - the household of the Prophet - they only consider the fourth one, Ali (r. 656-661 CE, a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet), as their spiritual leader or imam. After the murder of Ali in 661 CE, there was a shift to absolute monarchy in Islamic history, embodied by the Umayyad Dynasty

The Umayyads were generally excellent administrators and kept the realm in check through a potent mixture of politics and brute force of their military might. However, one problem that they failed to contain and instead helped invigorate was the alienation of various Arab and non-Arab factions, most notably: the Shias and the Persians. Moreover, by the end of their era, the inner circle of the ruling family had a falling out; their unity was shattered and their grip on the empire loosened. The last Umayyad sovereign, Marwan II (r. 747-750 CE) then faced the suppressed resentment and grievances of his people in the manifestation of open rebellion.

The Abbasid Revolution

Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (l. c. 568-653 CE) was one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad, and this relation inspired the eponymous revolution led by his descendants. The Abbasids raised the slogan of giving the 'Ahl al-Bayt' their due right – the caliphal throne.

The bulk of the Abbasid forces, under the command of Abu Abbas, met with Marwan's army near the Greater Zab river (750 CE) and emerged victorious as the caliph's army fled the field of battle in a miasma of panic. Marwan, who had escaped to Egypt to muster up his forces from the western regions, was found and killed. Abu Abbas as-Saffah – “the Blood-Shedder” (r. 750-754 CE) was then declared caliph in Kufa.

After his victory at Zab, Abu Abbas immediately rushed the bulk of his army to Central Asia to halt the expansion of the Chinese Tang Dynasty – their advance was checked at the battles of Talas (751 CE) when the Muslims incurred upon them a decisive defeat. But amiable relations followed soon after this brief episode of violence, ushering in a new era in the Islamic history as, instead of expansion, the Abbasids decided to aggrandize and secure what they already possessed.

One thing that the Abbasids had been lacking hitherto was a capital of their own. The Fertile Crescent had been a valued place in human history from time immemorable, and it was there that al-Mansur commissioned the creation of a new capital near the Tigris River - Baghdad, a bustling metropolis that humbled all European cities of the time in every standard.

Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786-809 CE) was the most prominent ruler of the Abbasid Dynasty, even stripped of his legendary status in stories and fables, the actual man still had an unparalleled personality. He was a patron of arts and learning and wished for Muslims to lead the world in that matter. The Grand Library of Baghdad, the Bayt al Hikma (House of Wisdom), was established to serve this particular purpose. Here, the classic works of the Greeks were translated into Arabic and, in time, these works did indeed serve to fuel the greatest minds of Europe to give the world a rebirth: the Renaissance.

With the rise of the Abbasids, the base for influence in the empire became international, emphasizing membership in the community of believers rather than Arab nationality. Since much support for the Abbasids came from Persian converts, it was natural for the Abbasids to take over much of the Persian (Sasanian) tradition of government. Support by pious Muslims likewise led the Abbasids to acknowledge publicly the embryonic Islamic law and to profess to base their rule on the religion of Islam.

The power of the army officers had been weakened through internal rivalries when the Iranian Būyids entered Baghdad in 945, demanding of al-Mustakfī (944–946) that they be recognized as the sole rulers of the territory they controlled. This event initiated a century-long period in which much of the empire was ruled by local dynasties. In 1055 the Abbasids were overpowered by the Seljuqs Turks, who took what temporal power may have been left to the caliph but respected his position as the titular leader, restoring the authority of the caliphate.

Then in 1258 CE Mongol forces besieged Baghdad, and in the typical ruthless way of Mongol warfare, the entire city - including the mighty edifices such as the famous Bayt al-Hikma - was levelled and its entire population massacred. The Caliph was rolled in a carpet and trampled under the hooves of horses. Most of the royal family was killed, save for one boy who was sent to Mongolia and one princess who became a slave in Hulegu's harem. The Mongol advance to the heartland of Islam was crushed by the Mamluk Sultanate, in the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260 CE). The Mamluks then raised a lineage of Abbasids as shadow caliphs in Cairo, but these people were merely figureheads. In 1517 CE, Sultan Selim I of the Ottoman Sultanate (1299-1924 CE) conquered the Mamluk lands and passed to caliphal title to his lineage.

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Different actions, same result

Given two 2s, "plus" can be changed to "times" without changing the result: 2 + 2 = 2 times 2. The solution with 3 numbers is too: 1 + 2 + 3 = 1 X 2 X 3.

Now find the answer for 4 numbers and the answer(s) for 5 numbers.

Sorry if a bit late but have fun :soviet-heart: and remember to dm @Wmill the answer. Thats W M I L L btw all other windmills are false.