The conquest of Wales by Edward I took place between 1277 and 1283. It is sometimes referred to as the Edwardian Conquest of Wales, to distinguish it from the earlier (but partial) Norman conquest of Wales. In two campaigns, in 1277 and 1282–83, respectively, Edward I of England first greatly reduced the territory of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd ("Llywelyn the Last"), and then completely overran it, as well as the other remaining Welsh principalities.

By the 13th century, Wales was divided between native Welsh principalities and the territories of the Anglo-Norman Marcher lords. The leading principality was Gwynedd whose princes had gained control of the greater part of the country, making the other remaining Welsh princes their vassals, and had taken the title Prince of Wales. Although English monarchs had made several attempts to seize control of the native Welsh territories, it was not until Edward's war of conquest against Llywelyn, the last native prince of Wales, that this was achieved on a lasting basis.

Henry III's string of military defeats in Wales (1228, 1231, and 1232 CE) had led to Henry conferring on Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (c. 1223-1282 CE) the title of Prince of Wales. The Welshman's independence was further asserted when he refused to attend Edward's coronation in 1274 CE. The new king was rather better at warfare than his father had been, though, and Edward was intent on taking revenge for the slight. Organising a massive army in 1276 CE, the English king marched into Wales and stripped Llywelyn of his lands, although he did permit him to keep his now-meaningless royal title. Nevertheless, the Welsh still had ambitions of freedom from English rule and Llywelyn's brother Dafydd stirred up yet another rebellion. The rebels were defeated and Llywelyn was killed in 1282 CE, his head presented to the English king in triumph and then displayed at the Tower of London. Dafydd was eventually captured, and he was executed, too, using the brutal method reserved for traitors: hanging, drawing, and quartering the victim.

Edward now became determined to thoroughly impose his domination of the region, particularly in North Wales where the rebels had had their headquarters, by building a series of mighty castles. From 1283 CE onwards such imposing fortresses as Caernarfon Castle, Conwy Castle, and Harlech Castle were built. The king made sure his castles were often built on sites of cultural and historical importance to the Welsh to send a clear message that a new order had begun in the region. He even went so far as to ensure his son Edward was born in Caernarfon Castle – the heart of the English administration in Wales – on 25 April 1284 CE and then bestowed upon him the title of Prince of Wales (formally conferred in 1301 CE). Thereafter, it became customary for an English monarch to give this title to their eldest son.

Despite the castles and the royal propaganda, the Welsh were not quite subdued and another major rebellion broke out, this time led by Madog ap Llywelyn, in 1294 CE. Edward, despite being forced to winter in Conwy Castle, managed to regain control of Caernarfon Castle by 1295 CE. Madog was then defeated by an army led by the Earl of Warwick at Maes Moydog in March 1295 CE, and Wales was henceforth administered as if it were a part of England, the region already having been divided up into shires in the 1284 CE Statute of Rhuddlan in order to break up the old traditional kingdoms. A new series of castles was then erected to ensure continued obedience, which included Beaumaris Castle, perhaps the finest surviving example of a concentric medieval castle.

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  • SteamedHamberder [he/him]
    ·
    2 years ago

    Question for a native Celtic Speaker: Is modern English word order similar to Welsh?

    I remember reading this theory in "Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue" that sometime between Old English and Middle English, the syntax and order changed, but that it changed from something similar to Dutch and Frisian to something closer to Cornish and Welsh. All this when the actual words started to incorporate more French and Latin, and less Anglo-Saxon.

    • Madcat [any]
      ·
      2 years ago

      I'm not a linguist so I apologise if my answer's not as thorough as you want but I'll try my best lol.

      I'd say they're pretty similar but still have some major differences. Like a lot of things are done "backwards" from each other for lack of a better way to describe it. So "tall person" in English is "person tal" in Welsh. "Red book" is "llyfr coch" literally book red. In English if you were going to the shop or something you'd say "I'm going to the shop" and in Welsh you'd say "Dwi'n mynd i'r siop" which are really similar in word order. "dwi'n" is the "I am", "mynd" is the "going", "i'r" is the "to the", and "siop" is the, you guessed it, "shop". But if you were saying "I went to the shop" past tense in Welsh it'd be "Es i i'r siop". In this case "es" is "went" and "i" is "I". So literally in English it would be like "went I to the shop".

      Another example is saying you have something. In English you'd say "I have a(n) (item)" but in Welsh you'd say either "Mae gen i (item)" or "Mae (item) gen i". The word order in English literally looks like "have I (item)" or "(item) have I". I think in the south they say "Mae (item) gyda fi" which in English literally is "(item) with me". So an example would look like "I have a book" in English and "Mae gen i lyfr" or "Mae llyfr gen i" in Welsh.

      I'd say generally when you're just talking the word order is pretty similar. There are exceptions like above where certain ways of saying things are ordered very differently, but if you're just having a conversation I'd say the majority would be pretty similar.